By Hew Morrison – Forensic Artist and Facial Imaging Specialist
York Archaeology’s Collections team is pleased to work with Forensic Artist Hew Morrison, who has reconstructed a possible likeness for a small number of past inhabitants of York. Here, he describes how forensic facial reconstruction works and how it can be applied to the past as well as the present. Hew then takes a closer look at Skeleton 19 from our excavations at Driffield Terrace in 2005. The excavation uncovered individuals who have been interpreted as possible Gladiators. The man was between 26 and 35 years old when he died. He had been decapitated. He has bite marks on both hips made by a large cat, thought to be a lion, inflicted just before his death.
Forensic Facial Reconstruction: An Overview
Forensic facial reconstruction is used in two main contexts: forensic science and history.
In forensic science, facial reconstruction is typically employed to help identify human remains when conventional methods such as fingerprints, dental records, or DNA profiling are unavailable. Though not considered definitive for identification, a facial approximation serves as a valuable investigative tool. It allows family members or acquaintances of the unknown individual to recognise the reconstructed face or its features. Recognition can then guide investigators toward a list of suspected victims, which can later be confirmed using conventional forensic methods.
In archaeology, facial reconstruction helps visualise and humanise historical individuals. These reconstructions often feature in museum exhibitions, alongside grave goods that may have been personal to the individual in life.
Techniques in Facial Reconstruction
A variety of techniques can be deployed for facial reconstruction, using either two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional (3D) methods. Both approaches can be conducted manually or with computer software.
For SK19, the skull did not undergo CT scanning, which would have enabled digital, manual, or 3D reconstruction. The manual method involves physically building the face with modelling clay on a 3D print of the skull.
The chosen method for SK19 was a computer-assisted 2D reconstruction, using a high-resolution, scaled frontal photograph of the skull.
Determining Biological Sex and Age
Upon first observing the skull, it was immediately apparent that SK19 was male. Male skulls are generally larger and more robust, with angular features, prominent brow ridges, sloping foreheads, and square chins.
The left side of the zygomatic (cheek) bone was partially missing. A mirrored segment from the undamaged right side was duplicated and applied. This is standard practice when reconstructing skulls with damage or missing anatomical regions.
Osteological analysis determined that SK19 was a European male aged 26–35. Soft tissue depth varies by age, sex, and ethnicity, so digital markers specific to adult Europeans of this age group were applied to anatomical points on the skull.
Mapping Facial Features
Certain areas of the skull were carefully measured to determine the size, shape, and position of individual features. For example, the enamel of the front teeth was used to calculate the thickness of the upper and lower lips. The width of the mouth was set by aligning the corners where the outer edge of the upper canine teeth meets the first premolars.
Tissue depth markers guided the creation of digital facial musculature, combined with visible muscle attachment sites (striations) on the bone. Muscles were sequentially constructed to allow anatomically informed modelling of soft tissues.
Additional anatomical features such as the parotid glands, located above the masseter muscles, were placed to influence facial contour realistically.
Constructing the Digital Face
A preliminary 2D sketch served as a structural reference. The endpoints of the tissue depth markers were connected while following the underlying curvature of the skull.
Facial features were then progressively replaced with anatomically realistic elements. Twelve individual components were selected from a library of high-resolution, front-facing photographic portraits, a method similar to the traditional police Photofit system.
Tools in Adobe Photoshop, such as Free Transform and Liquify, were used to adjust scale, contour, and position for each facial element. Adjustments to brightness, contrast, exposure, hue, and saturation ensured tonal consistency across the composite. Digital painting was applied to harmonise overlapping areas and maintain shading consistency.
Applying Biological and Historical Context
Certain traits—hair colour, eye colour, skin tone, and texture—cannot be determined from skeletal remains alone. In modern forensic cases, missing biological data leads to black-and-white reconstructions to avoid misleading details.
For SK19, a degree of artistic interpretation was applied. Isotope testing indicated origins just outside the range normally recognised as British, suggesting a warmer climate, probably further south within the Roman Empire.
Visual studies of modern males from Mediterranean and southern European populations indicate dark, thick, wavy or curly hair. A hairstyle matching these characteristics was applied. Eye colour was chosen from the most prevalent trait—dark brown—and applied using a stock photograph.
Reconstructing Life from Death
Osteological analysis of SK19’s skeleton provided insight into his physical traits, overall health, and injuries at death. By reconstructing his facial features, we now have a visual depiction of how he would have appeared in life.
From a historical perspective, viewing the faces of past individuals allows us to connect with our ancestors. Restoring SK19’s identity and facial appearance also restores dignity to a death that was unusual, unnatural, and horrific.
